Jin Gao, Karoline Hansen, Andrea Hart, Kunwei He, Rebecca Keddie, Charlotte Mang, Jon Nicholls, Ruirui Sun, Jinghang Zhang

This blog introduces a collaboration between University College London (UCL) and Natural History Museum (NHM). Co-authored by staff and students, it discusses the Phase I of the UCL-NHM Chinese Export Watercolours (CEW) project, which was carried out in May 2024. It focused on the cataloguing and digitisation of the Museum’s John Reeves botanical drawings collection (c.1812-1831), which comprises 1,057 original watercolour paintings of both wild and cultivated Chinese plants. Interestingly, this project mirrors the collaborative spirit of 200 years ago, when European naturalists and Chinese artists worked together to document and understand the natural world of China (Fan, 2004). Today, our Chinese project members contribute their special knowledge and perspectives, which continues the rich tradition of cultural and scientific exchange that began in the 19th century.

Context

Chinese Export Watercolours (CEW) are a type of paintings produced in China for export to Europe and the North America during the 18th and 19th Centuries. The John Reeves drawings collection at the Natural History Museum (NHM) comprises a unique selection of botanical, zoological, and entomological drawings depicting the natural history of China  (Magee, 2011). John Reeves worked for the East India company as Assistant Tea Inspector in Canton but through his interest in natural history he actively worked to further European knowledge of Chinese natural history developing contacts with merchants, officials and craftsmen. He would proceed to commission local artists to depict the flora and fauna he encountered. The drawings produced differed from the traditional artwork created for the European market, referred to as Chinese export paintings, with Reeves and then his son, John Russell Reeves, providing instruction on the subject, detailing the conventions for botanical and zoological illustration. The result is a collection of outstanding paintings which are important not only for their striking beauty and accuracy, but also for their scientific significance (Figure 1). John Russell Reeves inherited his father’s collection of natural history drawings and after his death in 1877 they were presented to the British Museum by his wife.

To enable this collection of botanical drawings to be made more accessible for study and research,  in Spring 2024, UCL (University College London) and NHM came together and developed the UCL-NHM Chinese Export Watercolours (CEW) project. Co-led by Jin Gao, Lecturer in Digital Archives at UCL, and Andrea Hart, Library Special Collections Manager  at the NHM, the resulting project involved 4 staff from both institutions and 5 students from the MA/MSc Digital Humanities programme as their optional work placements (See Figure 2).

Insights from project members

The diverse reflections of the project members, especially students, showed the collaborative nature of this project, where each brought a unique perspective to understand and appreciate the Reeves botanical drawings collection.

The cataloguing team shared their experience of handling and discovering from the original paintings:

Karoline Hansen  – “Handling original paintings created by Chinese artists centuries ago allowed me to more deeply comprehend the history of natural history. The human element was brightly evident through the style of the paintings, layers on layers of inscriptions, hidden watermarks revealed only by torchlight, and now by our own contributions of cataloguing and metadata (Figure 3).

The style of the paintings was especially interesting to me, as they diverged from the classic Chinese pursuit of the perfect image which I am more used to. Flat lay cross-sections accompanied browning leaves, and roots stretched from the stems of flowers. This was the clear mark of a Western interpretation of local flora. I grew familiar with strangers’ recurring handwriting as I honed my interpreting skills. Working on a diverse team with so many skills was an incredible boon to the project, and we relied on each other for our varying specialties. I even found myself texting my mother for her well of knowledge about Chinese history, and her contributions joined our own in the translation section of some local flower names.

It was a true pleasure to nurture my curiosity in the natural world. But, even more so, I gained a massive appreciation for how history is not only recorded, but made.”

Charlotte Mang – “As part of the Cataloguing Team for the NHM John Reeves CEW collection, I learned to decipher difficult handwritings and inscriptions while carefully handling artworks. Although measuring the artworks’ dimensions and verifying information can be repetitive, it allowed me to engage closely with the art, whether by examining or admiring it, and to gain interesting botanical knowledge while contributing to its preservation and digitisation within a museum setting. We discovered intriguing watermark variations, such as the prominent J WHATMAN mark, often accompanied by the year of paper production and sometimes “TURKEY MILL,” denoting its origin at the original J WHATMAN paper mill. James Whatman revolutionised papermaking with wove paper at Turkey Mill in the 1750s, enhancing its strength and smoothness through innovative techniques involving gelatine baths. This superior quality not only preserved artworks better but also facilitated artistic experimentation. Another fascinating discovery was a watermark featuring “V E I C” atop a heart-shaped logo, symbolising the United East India Company’s legacy and luck.

Beyond the watermarks, the languages used, particularly in the names of Chinese plants and fruits, reveal cultural connections across Southeast Asia, especially Malaysia, Indonesia, and sometimes the Philippines. Each artwork, through its inscriptions or intricate details, offered a deeper appreciation for botanical diversity and historical narratives. The quality of these watercolour paintings never ceased to amaze me, especially the various depictions of fruits that remind me of home, including watermelon, durian (my favourite fruit!), mango, dragon fruit, coconut, lychee, rambutan, mangosteen, and many more. I also randomly discovered that John Reeves and I attended the same school in England. By helping make these paintings more accessible to the public, I feel more connected to this project in more ways than one.”

Jinghang Zhang – “The First Opium War in 1840 between the Qing Dynasty and the British Empire is often regarded as the beginning of modern Chinese history. After this conflict, China, which had maintained a “glorious isolation” for centuries, is believed to finally start to open its doors and clumsily engage with the globalisation tide. This narrative has become so ingrained that the foreign interactions of China before 1840 are frequently overlooked. Most people’s knowledge of this period is limited to the idea that Canton (nowadays Guangzhou) was the sole window for China’s interactions with the outside world.

The export paintings in this project were created during this overlooked era by Chinese artists in Canton, commissioned by their Western patron, which are invaluable primary sources that deepen our understanding of Sino-Western cultural interactions of that time. Whilst rooted in the traditional Song dynasty bird-and-flower painting techniques, these export paintings also show significant Western influences. Such influences can be traced back to the 18th-century Western painters who served at the Qing court, outlining a potential path of artistic technique dissemination from the court to the public. Furthermore, the use of the “Guange” style of Chinese characters in the text inscriptions on the paintings suggests the possible key role of the Chinese intellectual elite in foreign interactions (Figure 5). Additionally, the use of an informal way of romanisation grounded in the Cantonese dialect in these inscriptions indicates that these interactions took place in a relatively unrestrained environment.

These discoveries somewhat challenge the stereotypical view on the Qing Dynasty’s stance towards Western influences before the First Opium War, offering a fresh perspective that allows for a more objective and realistic understanding of that period. For me, the experience of participating in this project has been like a journey of discovery built upon time travel. The process of uncovering long-hidden truths beneath the dust of history has brought me immense satisfaction.

These reflections underscore the collaborative and interdisciplinary essence of the project, bridging past and present through a shared passion for art and history.”

The photography team members provided insights into the technical and collaborative aspects of digitising the Reeves botanical collection:

Kunwei He – “Being part of the Photography Team for the John Reeves collection has been an incredibly rewarding experience. We use colour checkers to ensure accurate colours, conduct focus checks for clarity, and meticulously examine each painting to digitise every detail. We adhere to strict protocols for naming, converting, and saving images. While this may sound straightforward, it demands intense concentration to avoid any mix-ups and ensure high-quality output.

What makes this job truly fascinating are the unexpected discoveries. Opening each box feels like unwrapping a surprise gift — every painting is uniquely captivating and stunning. The joy of stumbling upon depictions of favourite plants or fruits is beyond words (See Figure 6 and 7).

Zooming in to 100% on the screen reveals hidden details and the intricate brushstrokes that bring the artwork to life. It’s a fascinating exploration of artistry and craftsmanship (See Figure 8 and 9).

Additionally, uncovering paintings with striking resemblances has piqued our curiosity about their origins and the skills of the artists behind them (See Figure 10).

Working with these incredible paintings has deepened my appreciation for art and the meticulous process involved in preserving it. It’s been a journey of discovery and learning, and I look forward to uncovering more hidden gems in the future.”

Ruirui Sun – “The digitisation of the NHM CEW collection has been a very rewarding experience for me. Our photography team developed an efficient workflow that allowed us to handle and process the artworks swiftly. Initially, the workflow involved sequential tasks that had a lot of waiting time, but we soon refined it to allow simultaneous processing and handling, increasing our productivity. This streamlined approach not only improved our efficiency but also enhanced the overall quality of our work. By adhering to NHM standards and meticulously documenting each step, we ensured that the digitised collection accurately reflects the original works.

Our collaboration with the cataloguing team has been incredibly smooth and productive. The written notes in the boxes allowed us to quickly determine whether any action was needed, making it easier for our digitising team and the cataloguing team to switch boxes efficiently. This seamless cooperation significantly contributed to the overall success of the project. Additionally, I appreciate every insight from the cataloguing team, which inspired us from different perspectives and deepened our collective understanding.

As someone born in central China and having lived in Guangdong, I often found delightful surprises during the work. Every time I see a familiar plant depicted in these artworks, it brings a sense of joy and nostalgia. It’s a special privilege to revisit my cultural heritage through the lens of Western artistic styles during the work (Figure 11).

This project has not only been a professional challenge but also a journey of personal growth and discovery. It has enriched my understanding of both the technical and artistic aspects of digitisation, and I am very excited to see the future outcomes of the CEW project.”

Conclusion and project success

Over the course of the month of May, the 1057 original watercolours were individually catalogued, a process which recorded each artwork’s dimensions, condition, notations, paper and presence of watermarks as well as the include of any Chinese characters which, due to the expertise in the team were transcribed and translated in the metadata. Each work was also imaged so that now a high-quality TIFF file exists for each item. The students were also able to develop their handling skills including an appreciation for the conservation and preservation of artworks on paper in addition to further developing their team work and presentation skills.

The reflections and insights echo the themes discussed in British Naturalists in Qing China by Fa-ti Fan (2004), which explores the complex relationships between Western naturalists and Chinese society. As Fan notes, the success of British naturalists in the 19th century depended heavily on the active participation and knowledge of their Chinese collaborators, which formed flourishing cultural and scientific exchange. This project mirrors that collaborative spirit from 200 years ago and brought together expertise from across regions and disciplines to document and understand China’s natural history.

As a work-in-progress, the future research could continue such collaboration, engage with Chinese botanists and scientists in the identification and study of the plants depicted to enrich our understanding and appreciation of these paintings and potentially shed additional light on other subjects including society and culture. As we move forward, more project updates will be anticipated.

 

References

Fan, Fa-Ti. (2004) British Naturalists in Qing China. Harvard University Press.

Judith Magee. (2011) Chinese Art and the Reeves Collection: Images of Nature. Natural History Museum.

P.J.P. Whitehead and P.I. Edwards. (1974) Chinese natural history drawings: selected from the Reeves Collection in the British Museum (Natural History). The British Museum (Natural History).

Jin Gao, Yangming Zhang, Linminqing Wang, Yawen Li, Feichi Li, Shirley Chang, Jiawei Liu

Chinese export watercolours are a type of objects produced in China for export to Europe and the North America during the 18th and 19th Centuries. They were made by Chinese artists catering to the taste of their customers, and these works typically depict Chinese traditional customs, occupations, manufacture and trades, boats, plants and animals, and they blend Chinese and European painting techniques, resulting in a unique mix of artistic styles. The Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) holds a significant collection of the Chinese export watercolours (Clunas, 1984), and despite its importance in global art history, this collection remains relatively understudied.

This blog, co-authored by students and staff, introduces the phase one of the Chinese Export Watercolours (CEW) project, which is a collaboration between the Chinese Iconography Thesaurus (CIT) project team at the V&A’s Asia Department (V&A, 2016) and the UCL Department of Information Studies, and it is funded by the UCL Fellowship Incubator Awards. The project is led by Dr Hongxing Zhang and Dr Jin Gao, and it has involved Molly Fort, a UCL PhD student, nine UCL students from the MA/MSc in Digital Humanities programme (Yangming Zhang, Linminqing Wang, Yawen Li, Feichi Li, Shirley Chang, Jiawei Liu, Xiaohan Jiang, Liyuan Liu, José Pedro Sousa), as well as Yi-Hsin Lin and Bingjun Liu, the CIT data standard editors at the V&A. With the kind support from UCL Digitisation Suite and UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, the project started in May 2023. It has involved cataloguing, auditing, photography, and digital asset management works of over 2,300 Chinese export watercolours acquired by the V&A in the 1870s to 1930s.

Thanks to the help and guidance by the V&A’s Asia department, the V&A Research Institute (VARI), the Photography and Digitisation, the Collections Care and Access, the Digital Media and Publishing departments at the V&A, phase one of the CEW project has resulted in an updated collection catalogue and digitised images on the V&A Explore the Collections website accessible as teaching and research materials for all, and for phase two, it is carrying out image analysis and archive-based provenance research to trace its history of collecting and investigate the formation of the collection.

Cataloguing and pre-photography

Benefitting from the training offered by the V&A’s curatorial staff in object handling, the initial phase involved basic cataloguing and pre-photography tasks, typically requiring a collaborative effort between two individuals. One person was responsible for measuring the dimensions of albums and paintings using plastic rulers, while another recorded these measurements in a spreadsheet along with additional details such as box notes, inscriptions, and the condition of the paintings. Additionally, prior to photography, the pre-photography staff attached object numbers to small white papers and placed them on each painting to aid colleagues in later stages.

The experience of pre-photography tasks could be described as a mix of enjoyment and precision. The enjoyment stemmed from the chance to closely examine the paintings as they were laid out on the table. This hands-on interaction felt almost like a journey back in time, allowing us to connect with historical figures and get glimpses into their lives. Some paintings evoked laughter, while others challenged our assumptions about what Qing China looked like. However, the process demanded careful attention to detail. For the person measuring, seemingly identical paintings might actually have slight differences in their dimensions. For the cataloguing task, encountering unfamiliar and complex characters in traditional Chinese text was common. Despite these challenges, facing them head-on was essential for improving our digital skills and achieving the precision necessary for museum work.

Photography

The photography of these watercolours played an important role in the overall digitisation process, and we would like to express our gratitude to the UCL Digitisation Suite for letting us use their digitisation equipment. We, as students, had received basic digitisation training through the Introduction to Digitisation module as part of the UCL Master programme in Digital Humanities. Benefitting from the further training provided by the V&A Photography and Digitisation department, we learned many practical aspects such as camera setup, lighting adjustments, colour management, and post-processing techniques, which greatly facilitated the project’s initiation. For the specific process, capturing the needed photograph demanded the close coordination of two to three members of our team. One or two of us took charge of positioning the object, adjusting its angle and location on the copy stand, and fine-tuning the camera’s height. Meanwhile, another team member operated a laptop, utilising Capture One — a photography software suite — to remotely manage the camera’s focus and capture settings.

During the initial stages of our project’s pilot test, arriving at consistent camera settings necessitated multiple trials and discussions. While time-intensive, this phase laid a sturdy groundwork. Subsequent shots only required us to adjust the camera height and focus based on the batch’s object sizes. Our primary objective was to capture each artwork with highest resolution, ensuring legibility of labels at the frame edges. Typically, the initial photo in each batch featured a colour checker — a critical tool for colour calibration during post-processing. Following these preliminary steps, we moved on to photograph each artwork individually.

Occasionally, we encountered objects that posed challenges in terms of capture. While most artworks have flat surfaces, some exhibited signs of aging, leading to wrinkles in their mounts. Thick albums, when opened to certain pages, would bulge at the centre. To minimise this, we employed a large transparent glass panel, an action that often resembled weightlifting due to its heft. Careful handling was essential to prevent damage to the delicate pith paper. In such instances, an extra pair of hands often came in handy for observing, page-turning, and manual straightening. Reflective materials — like gold pigments or protective plastic films — presented a unique hurdle. We would reposition the artwork to eliminate glare and capture these paintings in segments, later stitching them together during post-production. Likewise, for larger paintings, we applied a similar approach, capturing sections and subsequently merging them.

In essence, the photography phase was one of the essential stages of our digitisation endeavour. Through careful handling and innovative techniques, we aimed to capture each artwork with the highest fidelity, ensuring their lasting preservation in the digital realm.

Colour management

The raw images underwent post-photography processing utilising Capture One. This phase encompassed the addition tasks of metadata, including creator details, CIS (Common Information Subsystem), copyright information, and related information. Additionally, image rotation and cropping were applied on a case-by-case basis, ensuring the focus remained on the primary subject of the painting and enhancing its aesthetic appeal.

An important juncture in our process was colour calibration, a step that presented numerous challenges. Variations in lighting conditions during photography and variations in camera height could lead to deviations from the original colours. Thus, colour calibration based on the previously captured colour checker was imperative. However, we encountered disparities when using different colour calibration software. Although the same colour checker produced dissimilar ICC files across different software, our extensive comparisons led us to favour the ColourChecker Camera Calibration method. This approach yielded results closest to the original paintings and became our best solution.

Given the variations in Capture One across different computer systems, careful attention was required to standardise subtle options and settings during the collaborative colour calibration process. Any deviation in these settings could lead to significant discrepancies in colour calibration effects. An illustrative example is the Export option ICC Profile, which ideally should be configured to Embed Camera Profile. Selecting Adobe RGB, on the other hand, resulted in heightened vividness and a reddish tint post colour correction.

The post-production stage proved to be a time-intensive endeavour, with an approximate output of around 100 images per day. Upon completion of the initial tasks, the photography team actively participated in the post-photography phase, further streamlining our efforts.

The image quality check

Ensuring access to top-quality images from the CEW project’s painting collection is crucial for visitors. Our process started with checking each object on the V&A website using its system ID and object number. We began by downloading the first JPG image of the object and evaluating its quality following the V&A websites terms and conditions. If it met the quality standards, we noted the review date in the ‘V&A website check’ column in our tracking spreadsheet to make sure all paintings were covered.

Specifically, we encountered a few issues that need addressing. One common problem was inconsistent cropping, where paintings were not adjusted properly, displaying the object number unnecessarily. Another issue was image quality problems like dots or unclear images. We reported these issues to the V&A Collection Management team and Digital Media team for fixing. After that, we double-checked to ensure the corrections were made properly.

Our responsibility for delivering high-quality images and easy access on the V&A website was crucial. It ensures visitors have a smooth experience without any problems while browsing the webpage and viewing images.

The digitisation of the Chinese Export Watercolours collection marks a significant milestone, and it opens up more opportunities to further explore this collection. As we move forward, more project updates will be anticipated.

The annotation via Zooniverse

The digitisation of the Chinese Export Watercolours collection marks a significant milestone, and it opens up more opportunities to further explore this collection.

For example, to facilitate the annotation process, we have used the Zooniverse platform, a citizen science portal managed by the Citizen Science Alliance (Simpson et al., 2014). Zooniverse hosts some of the internet’s largest, most successful crowdsourcing projects, enabling volunteers worldwide to engage in scientific research. The platform provides user-friendly annotation tools that allow participants to mark content and subject matter in drawings, and the CEW project will leverage Zooniverse’s technical support, and project team members will embark on thematic and content labelling for the initial pilot collections.

We will, firstly, employ Zooniverse to thematically annotate the collection, utilising vocabulary derived from the Chinese Iconography Thesaurus (CIT). Given the CIT’s robust descriptive system for Chinese collections, we will be adopting this vocabulary for CEW collection labelling. This approach establishes continuity between our research project and the CIT.

Through annotating this sample collection, we will gain a deeper comprehension of the painted subjects within this digitised CEW collection. Consequently, we will create CEW annotations grounded in the CIT vocabulary but tailored to a more specific focus. Thematic classification not only enriches our understanding but also opens avenues for future in-depth research. For instance, we may be able to explore potential preferences for subject matters across different periods, shedding light on the regions of China that held Western clients’ greatest interest during this time. Moreover, we can investigate variations in style, colour, and subject matter within paintings of the same theme across different periods based on our labels.

This annotation process serves as the initial stride in our research team’s endeavour to delve deeper into the collection beyond digitisation. We look forward to uncovering fascinating discoveries from the CEW collection.

Further image analysis

The next phase of research consists of classification and image analysis, which employs digital humanities and machine learning methodologies. Initially, we harnessed deep learning models that had been trained to extract image features, coupled with clustering algorithms, to autonomously classify the entire set of 2,308 images. After some adjustments, our algorithm can now broadly differentiate key image categories, such as figures, flora and fauna, and scenes. Specifically, the distinct framework of the five major subject categories led to nuanced algorithmic variations for each (see Figure 12 and Figure 13). Nevertheless, the presence of colour disparities, textual elements, and frame decorations poses challenges, hindering precise subject classification, particularly in images with subtle distinctions. At this juncture, manual intervention becomes imperative to rectify the categories of these images and subdivide them into finer sub-categories. The official nomenclature for these categories will undergo further refinement in subsequent publications.

In our latest work-in-progress report, we have successfully identified a minimum of five major subject categories and 23 sub-themes within the Chinese export watercolours collection at the V&A Museum (as Figure 14).

Topography and Architecture 地貌与建筑（91） 

• Topographical views 地貌 (7)
• Interior scenes 室内场景 (52)
• Gardens 园林 (30)
• Shopfronts 店面 (2)

Manner and Customs 风俗习惯（304） 

• Religious, Historical and Legendary characters 宗教、历史和传奇人物 (147)
• Pageants, processions, ceremonies, etc. 盛典、游行、仪式等 (49)
• Court of Justice 法庭 (3)
• Punishments and Tortures 刑罚 (48)
• Playing Boys 童戏 (48)

Occupations and Trades 阶层与行业（1076） 

• Silk, Tea, Porcelain manufacture 丝绸、茶叶和瓷器制造 (118)
• Scenes of Daily Life 百业 (695)
• Dignitaries 权贵显要 (179)
• Warriors 武将士兵 (37)
• Women Playing Music奏乐 (47)

Flora and Fauna 动植物（438） 

• Plant 植物 (312)
• Baskets of flowers 篮花 (22)
• Birds and flowers 花鸟 (36)
• Flowers and Insects 草虫 (56)
• Animals 动物
• Fish 鱼 (12)

Miscellaneous 其它 (338) 

• Ships 船舶 (159)
• Furniture, shop signs, and Tools and utensils 各类器具 (179)

* Covers (18)

To engage in advanced image analysis, a profound comprehension of digitised images is a fundamental prerequisite, and it is rooted in the earlier stages of pre-photography, photography, and post-production, complemented by careful observation and documentation. Distinct image categories necessitate unique analytical approaches. Taking the sitting position of women and shouldering position of men as examples, images centred on human subjects primarily draw attention to facial features and the image wireframe of body poses (see Figure 15 and Figure 16).

In a given set, numerous images may portray individuals in diverse situations, but some are with similar facial features and body poses. Similarly, there may be instances where different individuals wear remarkably similar clothing but in varying colours. The initial step in such analysis involves segmenting the image into recognisable sections, and by utilising feature extraction techniques, intrinsic characteristics and outlines are derived from these segments (Barthel et al., 2019). Subsequently, these images are collectively compared, and by employing such methodologies to analyse image similarity, it significantly enhances the efficiency of subsequent research and data analysis.

Another category deserving attention pertains to Ships 船舶 (159) sub-category. In this context, the emphasis on similarity analysis primarily revolves around colour assessment and the evaluation of the overall image outline (see Figure 17). For these types of images, there is often no need to segment and compare individual components. Instead, a comprehensive approach is adopted, focusing on the overall similarity of the entire image. Additionally, there are various image analysis algorithms employed for assessing inter-image similarities, with subtle adjustments made based on the specific features of the images in question, all geared toward ensuring data analysis accuracy (Bengamra et al., 2023).

In addition, the category of Birds and flowers 花鸟 (36) presents an interesting case, especially when considering the consistent presence of both elements within the paintings (See Figure 18). The recurring motif of pairing birds with flowers carries multifaceted cultural and social meanings deeply rooted in Chinese artistic heritage, drawing on the association of flora and fauna with auspicious meanings and scholarly virtues that dates back centuries, and it also reflects on the CIT terminology (i.e., CIT0284614 花鳥 Birds and Flowers). The correlation between birds and flowers in the CEW collection opens up a fascinating avenue for further in-depth image analysis and cultural interpretation.

 

In general, the analytical techniques utilised in the CEW project provide invaluable insights, forming a solid foundation not only for the ongoing study of the CEW project but also for other subsequent research in the future. These findings deepen our understandings of the subject matter and also open up new endeavours for exploration and discovery. As we move forward, more project updates will be anticipated.

 

References

Barthel, K.U., Hezel, N., Schall, K., Jung, K., 2019. Real-Time Visual Navigation in Huge Image Sets Using Similarity Graphs, in: Proceedings of the 27th ACM International Conference on Multimedia. Presented at the MM ’19: The 27th ACM International Conference on Multimedia, ACM, Nice France, pp. 2202–2204. https://doi.org/10.1145/3343031.3350599

Bengamra, S., Mzoughi, O., Bigand, A., Zagrouba, E., 2023. A comprehensive survey on object detection in Visual Art: taxonomy and challenge. Multimed Tools Appl. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-023-15968-9

Clunas, C., 1984. Chinese export watercolours, Far Eastern series. Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

Simpson, R., Page, K.R., De Roure, D., 2014. Zooniverse: observing the world’s largest citizen science platform, in: Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on World Wide Web. Presented at the WWW ’14: 23rd International World Wide Web Conference, ACM, Seoul Korea, pp. 1049–1054. https://doi.org/10.1145/2567948.2579215

V&A, 2016. Chinese Iconography Thesaurus (CIT) · V&A [WWW Document]. Victoria and Albert Museum. URL https://www.vam.ac.uk/research/projects/chinese-iconography-thesaurus-cit (accessed 9.1.23).